Madeleine Jönsson, “Political economics of gender relations in information and communication technologies in agricultural development. The case of knowledge-based platforms for farmers in Kenya”, University: PhD in economics from Université Paris-Saclay prepared at AgroParisTech (l’Institut des sciences et industries du vivant et de l’environnement); Paris, France, Date of Defence: 24th September 2018.

Supervisor : Catherine Laurent, Research Director, INRA (UMR SAD-APT 1048)

Members of the defence committee: Cécile Blatrix , Professor, AgroParisTech (UMR GVSP); Faïz Gallouj, Professor, Université de Lille (UMR CNRS 8019); Guy Faure, Research Director, INRA (CIRAD, UMR Innovation); George Onyango, Regional Deputy Director East Africa Region, We Effect

Low-income sub-Saharan African countries are confronted with demographic explosion since the last 60 years. Consequently, agriculture plays a key role in ensuring food security. The agricultural sector is also the main source of employment in this region. Women are the major contributing labour force in agriculture in these sub-Saharan African countries. Connected to their key role in the agricultural sector, women farmers are prioritised in policy intervention. Moreover, agricultural extension services are necessary to adapt to different constraints in these countries. Transfer of knowledge is also required to guarantee farm yields and consequently improve small-scale farmers’ livelihoods. Lately, information and communication technologies (ICTs) have enabled the development of new tools, aimed at improving the scope and the effectiveness of advisory services. Policy makers in sub-Saharan African countries are nonetheless confronted with critical questions regarding the impact of these tools, which can also contribute to a ‘digital gender gap’. These issues particularly concern women farmers.

This PhD research analyses how ICT tools take into account gender relations, and the situation of women farmers. The thesis is based on the case of Kenya. The dissertation particularly focuses on the development of knowledge-based platforms in agriculture, an ICT policy instrument used by the Kenyan Government to achieve public policy objectives. This country is emblematic because it believes in the assumption that platforms can be inclusive of women farmers’. To answer to this research question, the work is based on three different institutional economic research approaches: feminist economics, the French regulation theory, and economics of services. Combining the three theoretical frameworks of institutional economics make it possible to analyse new forms of inequalities that may emerge between women and men with regard to ICT knowledge-based platforms. Mobilising this combination of institutional economic approaches led to the use of a multilevel analysis. Thus, the thesis presents a conceptual and methodological framework to analyse the inclusion of gender equality in knowledge-based platforms at macro-, meso-, and micro- level. The methodology allows us to analyse: (1) public policy and strategic frameworks in relation to gender, farm extension and ICT goals; (2) the supply of farm advisory services by a selection of knowledge-based platforms; and (3)the demand for extension services by female farmers. Both qualitative and quantitative data methods was mobilised.

The thesis presents five main results. In first, the research demonstrates that ‘gender relations’ is affirmed as an objective of equity by the Kenyan Government. Besides, the results also show that platforms are used as tools of inclusion in policy intervention. In second, the actual development of platforms in Kenyan agriculture is described. Observations from a developed platform typology framework show however that platforms can be source of gender inequality. It especially concerns women farmers unequal access to these instruments and the standardised services that they offer. This is essentially related to the institutional nature of the platform. As it turns out, a high number of these instruments are based upon complex partnerships, and financed by multi-national corporations and/or foundations from the agrifood industry based in the Northern hemisphere. In third, the thesis presents the results of an in-depth analysis of the performance rationales of two knowledge-based platforms that demonstrate logics of gender inclusion. This analysis reveal the difficulties of operational implementation of 171gender equality objectives, beyond the display of gender-equality performance rationales.

Accessibility of internet services is a key issue for delivering technical agricultural support through platforms. The fourth result provides clues to understanding how these tools can reach the targeted women farmers in Kenya. Results reveal that women farmers’ limited access to the internet could relate to the fact that ICTs enabling internet access (e.g. computers) are not introduced in collective spaces that women famers prioritise attending (e.g. groups). The fifth result presents evidence on how women farmers are able to make the most of platforms, which might provide a basis for new forms of access to technical knowledge. Analysis from statistical data and qualitative surveys show the importance that collective spaces have for women farmers. Results from interviews with female farmers confirm the importance of women’s groups to access and exchange knowledge. Discussing with peers and extension agents is a key priority to these women. In keeping with these practices, they expect to use platforms in the same kinds of configuration. Likewise, based on findings from interviews with extension officers, it appears that they should be given a new innovative role, acting as ‘knowledge-bridges’ between farmers and platforms.

This thesis confirms that applying an institutional approach at three levels help understand the conditions on which knowledge-based platforms could be inclusive of women farmers in Kenya. Defining gender relations as a fundamental social relation has made it possible to: (1) bring to light the stakes concerning aspects of social inclusion that emerge with ICT platforms, and (2) articulate critical points of inclusion, enabling women farmers to access and use technological innovations. Feminist economic research has provided methods for the consideration and interpretation of gender relations within policy intervention and platforms. Institutional economics studies show the need to consider different social groups within the target audience, as well as the collective rules structuring economic activities, in order to avoid processes of exclusion in advisory services. Service economics has shown the importance of interactions between service providers and clients in guaranteeing service quality.

Emerging stakes emanate from this research, opening a new research agenda containing a set of sensitive issues with regard to: (a) the nature 172of platforms, where there is an attendant risk that economic objectives are prioritised over aspects of social inclusion when platforms are not implemented with public means; (b) their business model and fragility when financial sustainability is not secured and; (c) ways of organising knowledge flows between the global North and the global South, whereby the technical content of platforms could be contributing to possible lock-in effects. Together, these critical points reveals a new sphere of policy intervention for the Kenyan Government. Disregarding these specificities may make these platforms into new vectors of exclusion. Recognising and taking into account the conditions for inclusion can bring to light powerful levers for improving the efficiency of platforms.

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Peter M. Smith, “Missing Trade in Services in the European Single Market”, University: KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium, Date of defence: 10th December 2018

Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Leo Sleuwaegen, KU Leuven

Members of the defence committee: Prof. Dr. Jan Van Hove, KU Leuven; Prof. Dr. Filip Abraham, KU Leuven; Prof. Dr. Faïz Gallouj, Université de Lille; Prof. Dr. Jacques Pelkmans, College of Europe

The thesis examines the degree to which markets for services in Europe are integrated through trade and provides some explanations for missing trade other than regulation. It first measures the way in which markets for commercial services are served in the European Union. It finds that 70% of the European market is served by domestic firms, a little under ¼ by sales of the affiliates of foreign firms and only 6% by imports. Observed trade is then measured against the degree to which services are traded domestically to establish where trade is missing. While services that are more traded domestically are also more traded 173internationally, missing trade is indeed concentrated in imports rather than foreign direct investment particularly for ITC and professional services.

The choice between exporting and FDI is examined in terms of industry, firm and product characteristics using Belgian data between 1997 and 2005. Belgian trade in services is concentrated in transport and professional services. There are large numbers of small and micro firms, including those with zero employees, trading services. The low share of cross-border does not arise from a lack of firms willing and able to trade services but from their small scale. Physical tangibility, services that are easy to describe even when intangible and more surprisingly complex services are more likely to be traded by exporting while services that are difficult to evaluate prior to purchase (experience goods) and services requiring proximity between supplier and user are more likely to be traded via FDI.

The impact of service characteristics on imports is further explored using Eurostat data for 22 countries over the period 2005-2012. Service characteristics affect the degree to which different services are traded cross-border significantly differently from the choice between exporting and FDI. Experience goods are found to favour imports and physical tangibility to depress imports – ascribed to the effect of a category of intangible goods that can be stored and transported over the internet at negligible cost. The impact of complexity and the need for proximity is found to be declining significantly over time so that characteristics that in previously acted to depress cross-border trade no longer do so to the same extent; opening up new possibilities for trade in services.

Consumers are found to purchase considerably less online cross-border than from domestic suppliers even though there are few impediments to doing so. Using Eurobarometer data between 2006 and 2016, four types of factor are employed to explain this discrepancy. Product and labour market regulation are found to affect the willingness to purchase online but not the willingness to purchase cross-border compared to purchasing exclusively domestically. The larger the number of firms willing to sell online in a country the less willing are consumers to purchase cross-border. Personal characteristics such as age, gender, education and occupation affect the willingness to purchase online and cross-border in the same way but to a higher extent cross-border. 174Socio-economic characteristics of EU Member States are found to be the main differentiator between willingness to purchase domestically and cross-border. In particular size of market and income levels as well as levels of domestic prices affect the decision to purchase cross-border. Trust in institutions and cultural factors also play a role. Consumers in countries with low levels of personal trust may on the contrary have more trust in suppliers from other countries.

In conclusion firm characteristics, service characteristics and country characteristics all play a role in the decision to trade or purchase cross-border. Some of these factors are declining in importance but others such as the size of the domestic market are an intrinsic part of the European Single Market.